A short history of Syria, in maps

SYRIA WAS once a thriving hub of diverse merchant cities. During the Islamic Golden Age (from the eighth to the 13th centuries) the region that is modern-day Syria made notable contributions to the arts and sciences. Its strategic location on the Mediterranean has long drawn interest from, and encouraged meddling by, foreign powers. Our seven maps below illustrate how Syria became a country and the forces that have made it so unstable.

Syria’s cities are among the oldest in the world, but the concept of Syria as a country only emerged in the 20th century. Between 1516 and 1918 Damascus and Aleppo were separate administrative provinces within the Ottoman empire. These regions, or vilayets, were important to the empire for trade and security. Aleppo was an important waystation on the Silk Road, which connected the Far East with the Middle East and Europe, making it one of the richest cities in the empire.

After the first world war brought about the collapse of the Ottoman empire Britain and France rushed to secure their imperial interests. The Sykes-Picot Agreement of 1916 laid the groundwork for the region’s present borders (see map 1). It largely ignored ethnic or sectarian differences, contributing to the Middle East’s enduring instability.

Syria was placed under French rule in 1922. Anti-colonial feeling strengthened a sense of Syrian identity among different ethnic and religious groups. They united in a coalition that rebelled against the French in the Great Syrian Revolt of 1925-27. The movement was led by Sultan al-Atrash and other members of the small Druze minority, which became a powerful group during the fight for Syria’s independence.

The French finally retreated from Syria in 1946. The early years of independence were marked by weak leadership, military coups and economic instability—all of which undermined efforts to establish a cohesive state.

The concept of Arab unity spread across the Middle East, as newly-independent countries attempted to forge connections based on their shared history. Pan-Arabism became a powerful ideology in countries such as Syria and Egypt. Gamal Abdel Nasser, Egypt’s president, became one of its most influential proponents, especially after the creation of Israel in 1948 and the first Arab-Israeli war. The Soviet Union, which wanted to increase its influence in the Middle East, became a major weapons supplier to these countries.

In 1958 Syria and Egypt formed the United Arab Republic. But Egypt was dominant, and most decisions were made in Cairo (see map 3). Political, cultural and economic disagreements quickly escalated. A military coup in 1961 in Syria led to the end of the union and plunged the country back into turmoil. In 1963 the Baath Party, socialist and Arab nationalist in ideology, seized power. The Baathists strengthened ties with the Soviets because of their shared socialist and anti-Western convictions. They also gained influence in Iraq, where Saddam Hussein was a member.

Baathist leaders struggled to unify Syria which, to this day, is a patchwork of ideologies, religions and ethnicities (see map 4). In 1970 the defence minister, Hafez al-Assad, took over the party and became president of country. His rise brought to power the minority Alawites, an offshoot of Shia Islam that had been marginalised by the Sunni majority.

In 1982 an uprising in the city of Hama by the Muslim Brotherhood, a Sunni Islamist group originating in Egypt, challenged Assad’s rule. Tens of thousands of people were killed by the government’s bombardment of the city. The chilling message stuck with Syrians for decades.

Bashar al-Assad became president after his father died in 2000. It was widely believed that the Western-educated heir would modernise Syria and liberalise its economy. Such optimism was short-lived.

Israel was Syria’s biggest foreign-policy preoccupation under both Assads. In 1967, during the six-day war with its Arab neighbours, Israel captured the Golan Heights from Syria, as well as other land in the region (see map 5).

The Assads increasingly sought to challenge Israel’s growing power in the region. Syria took advantage of Lebanon’s civil war to occupy the country in 1976, seeking to use it as a buffer against Israel. The occupation lasted until 2005. Syria also forged alliances with Iran and its network of proxies, including Lebanon-based Hizbullah. America’s invasion of Iraq in 2003 provoked these groups to strengthen their co-operation in opposition to Western influence in the region. The Americans accused Syria of providing a safe haven for the Hussein regime and other members of the Iraqi Baath party. In 2004 America imposed new economic sanctions on Syria.

By 2010 Syria’s economy was in the doldrums. Poverty and unemployment were widespread. Youth, a growing share of the population, became increasingly disgruntled. In March 2011 a group of schoolboys—inspired by the Arab spring uprisings elsewhere—spray-painted anti-government slogans in the southern city of Deraa. They were arrested and tortured. Public anger led to a full-scale uprising against the regime; by the summer of 2012 it was becoming a civil war.

Defectors from the Syrian armed forces formed the Free Syrian Army, one of the biggest opposition groups. Jihadist groups, including Islamic State (IS) and Jabhat al-Nusra (JN), an affiliate of al-Qaeda, also gained ground. In 2014 IS declared a caliphate after capturing huge swathes of northern and eastern Syria. Foreign powers, including America, Qatar and Turkey, armed and funded various groups opposed to the Assad regime. Iran, Hizbullah, and Russia intervened to prop up the Assads.

Seven years into the civil war, with the help of Russia and Iran, the regime had largely quashed the rebels. Two areas escaped its control: Kurdish-held territory in the east and Idlib, which was governed by Hayat Tahrir al-Sham (HTS), a rebranded JN (it sought to distance itself from its jihadist roots).

The extent to which Mr Assad had relied on Russia and Hizbullah became evident in December 2024. With Russia preoccupied in Ukraine and Hizbullah battered by its war with Israel, Mr Assad’s patrons had their own worries. Rebel groups spearheaded by Ahmad al-Sharaa, leader of HTS, united against the regime and launched an offensive on November 27th. By December 8th Mr Assad had fled to Moscow, leaving control of Syria to HTS and various other rebel groups (see map 7). Some sources reckon that at least half a million Syrians were killed during the 14-year civil war. More than 14m fled the country.

Syria’s future looks unclear. It was devastated by the Assads’ dictatorships and years of civil war. HTS, now the strongest power in Syria, has the enormous challenge of bringing peace and order to a long-fractured country.■